Avian conservation through research and education

The first step in the BirdCountry.US Nestbox Program is to determine which species might be in your particular area. Below is a table that lists the 28 species the BirdCountry.US Nestbox Program is targeting. The table is divides the states alphabetically. Across the top of each table are the states. Find your state and scroll down to see which species might be found in your part of the country. Once you know what species you may have, consult the range maps in your local field guides to see if the species in question should be present in your part of the state.

Once you have determined which species might exist in your home area, you need to look at the species' preferred habitat to see if you have that available for them. To see the preferred habitat of any of the BirdCountry.US 28 Target Species, simply click on the species names that interest you. Ask yourself, "Does this particular habitat exist where I want to place my nestboxes? If the answer is "Yes,", then click on the links to learn more about the BirdCountry.US nestboxes and monitoring instructions, or "Order My Nestboxes" link. Your nestboxes will be on their way to you within 48 hours. Yes, it's that simple.

Inclusion of a species within a particular state (Y) does not necessarily mean that the species is present throughout the state.

Consult your field guides, then click on a particular species to determine their habitat preferences.

Alabama through Montana

Species < < < > > > State

Flammulated Owl

Western Screech-owl

Eastern Screech-owl

Northern Saw-whet Owl

Downy Woodpecker

Eastern Phoebe

Say's Phoebe

Ash-throated Flycatcher

Great Crested Flycatcher

Tree Swallow

Violet-green Swallow

Carolina Chickadee

Black-capped Chickadee

Mountain Chickadee

Chestnut-backed Chickadee

Tufted Titmouse

White-breasted Nuthatch

Pygmy Nuthatch

Brown-headed Nuthatch

Brown Creeper

Carolina Wren

Bewick's Wren

House Wren

Eastern Bluebird

Western Bluebird

Mountain Bluebird

American Robin

Prothonotary Warbler

Flammulated Owl - Common features of reported Flammulated Owl habitat (north of Mexico): cool, semi-arid climate; high abundance or diversity of nocturnal arthropod (mostly insect) prey; open physiognomy; some dense foliage (used for roosting). Nesting habitat also includes cavities or nest boxes. High arthropod abundance/diversity likely achieved in other forest habitats. Open physiognomy seems preferred. Semi-aridity may be correlate of open forests or may be physiological requirement of species. Coolness may also be unselected correlate of open forests, but this unlikely because open downslope woodlands appear to be used less frequently than pine forests. Prey availability appears responsible for migratory behavior of this species. Small carnivorous owls are not annual migrants, whereas small insectivorous owls are, but only in locations where fall/winter temperatures are regularly subfreezing, making arthropods scarce. Cavities clearly required unless acceptable nest boxes provided.

Reference: Mccallum, D. Archibald. 1994. Flammulated Owl (Otus flammeolus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/093 - doi:bna.93

Western Screech-owl - Diverse, but species clearly associated with riparian habitats and deciduous trees over much of its range.

Reference: Cannings, Richard J. and Tony Angell. 2001. Western Screech-Owl (Megascops kennicottii), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/597 - doi:bna.597

Eastern Screech-owl - Tree-dominated landscapes of most types, natural and culturally modified, early successional to mature, mountain slopes to river valleys, mostly below 1,500 m; e.g., northern and subtropical deciduous and mixed forest, riparian deciduous and southern pine forest, southwestern oak-juniper and subtropical thorn woodland, urban and suburban yards, parks, and green belts. Marginal in boreal and montane coniferous forest. Habitat is increasingly fragmented in urban regions, but no minimum area required. Only necessity is a suitable cavity tree or substitute (e.g., nest box). Prefers open subcanopy space with sparse shrub cover that facilitates flying, foraging, and perhaps predator detection. Where Eastern and Western Screech-owls overlap, Eastern occurs mostly along permanent watercourses at lower elevations; while the Western inhabits seasonally wet, upland drainages.

Reference: Gehlbach, Frederick R. 1995. Eastern Screech-Owl (Megascops asio), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/165. ... doi:bna.165

Northern Saw-whet Owl - Forests and woodlands of all types throughout its range, although population densities seem to be highest in coniferous forests. Reports that this owl requires or prefers dense forest have likely been based on locations of roosts rather than nests or foraging habitat. It is common in open ponderosa pine forests, and often breeds in riparian woodland in shrub-steppe environments, foraging there in sagebrush and antelope brush habitats. Generally not as confined to deciduous and mixed woodlands as are Eastern and Western Screech-Owls. In western mountains, its breeding habitat completely overlaps that of the Flammulated Owl, while Northern Pygmy-Owls tend to be found at higher elevations, although there is considerable overlap.

Reference: Cannings, Richard J. 1993. Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/042 - doi:bna.42

Downy Woodpecker - Generally present in open, deciduous, especially riparian, woodlands throughout its range; less abundant in coniferous forests except when associated with deciduous understory. Readily accepts orchards and wooded, human-modified habitats such as urban and suburban parks and residential areas, venturing into open areas, where it sometimes nests in cavities in fence posts and feeds on arthropods found in tall weeds in vacant lots and fencerows.

Reference: Jackson, Jerome A. and Henri R. Ouellet. 2002. Downy Woodpecker (Picoides pubescens), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/613 - doi:bna.613

Eastern Phoebe - More constrained by availability of suitable nest sites than by other preferences. Species generally thought to be a bird of woodland and edge habitats in the vicinity of water, but such features often coexist with nest sites (bridges, culverts, buildings, rock outcrops). Nevertheless, in the latter sites, phoebes sometimes nest in woodlands several hundred meters from water and openings. Regardless of nest site, however, phoebes require some woody vegetation, the more extensive the better, within a few meters of the location. Reasons for this requirement are unknown, but such vegetation shields a bird’s approach to the nest and allows the adult to perch and reconnoiter for predators prior to final approach to nest. Once breeding is completed, the birds largely abandon nest locations and range much more widely in a diversity of woodland habitats.

Reference: Weeks Jr., Harmon P. 1994. Eastern Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/094. ... doi:bna.94

Say's Phoebe - Open country, prairie ranches, sagebrush plains, badlands, dry barren foothills, canyons, and borders of deserts; generally avoids watercourses, rich agricultural land, and heavily forested land.

Reference: Schukman, John M. and Blair O. Wolf. 1998. Say's Phoebe (Sayornis saya), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/374. ... .doi:bna.374

Ash-throated Flycatcher - Generally, arid and semiarid scrub and open woodland, as well as riparian woodland in arid and semiarid regions. Within these general requirements, main necessities are presence of shrubs or trees with trunks or branches thick enough to serve as nest-cavity substrates, presence of ≥1 woodpecker species to excavate cavities, and relatively dry and open woodland or scrub habitat for foraging. In many situations, nests located in “woodland” corridors along washes, streams, and canyon bottoms. Widespread, preferred general habitat types are desert scrub/thorn woodland, piñon pine woodland, oak woodland, and various riparian associations. Also occurs in wide variety of ecotones between combinations of these habitats and with other habitats.

Reference: Cardiff, Steven W. and Donna L. Dittmann. 2002. Ash-throated Flycatcher (Myiarchus cinerascens), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/664. ... .doi:bna.664

Great Crested Flycatcher - Generally open deciduous or mixed woodlands and edges of clearings. Occupies old orchards, wooded pastures and riparian corridors, wooded swamps, parks, cemeteries, and other urban areas with numerous large shade trees. Favors isolated woodlots, second-growth woodlands, wooded hedgerows, and selectively cut woodlands over continuous and closed-canopy forest. Favors mesic to wet forests over dry forests, and avoids boreal forest.

Reference: Lanyon, Wesley E. 1997. Great Crested Flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/300 - doi:bna.300

Tree Swallow - Open areas, usually near water, including fields, marshes, shorelines, and wooded swamps with standing dead trees that provide sites for cavities. Northern breeding limit generally tree line.

Reference: Robertson, R. J., B. J. Stutchbury and R. R. Cohen. 1992. Tree Swallow (Tachycineta bicolor), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/011. ... .doi:bna.11

Violet-green Swallow - Open deciduous, coniferous, and mixed woodlands, including ponderosa pine, Monterey pine, and quaking aspen. In southern part of range, most common at elevations 2,000 to 3,500 m, although also nests in wooded canyons. In the north, breeds at lower elevations and near coast. Shares breeding habitat with Tree Swallow, but often found in more open habitat: rock crevices, holes in dirt banks or in columnar cacti.

Reference: Brown, C. R., A. M. Knott and E. J. Damrose. 1992. Violet-green Swallow (Tachycineta thalassina), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/014 - doi:bna.14

Carolina Chickadee - In se. U.S., inhabits: (1) swamp forests consisting of oak, water tupelo, black gum, sweetgum, and cypress; (2) maritime/riparian hardwood forests of live oak, elm , ash, and cottonwood; (3) mid- to late-successional mesic hardwood forests of American beech and southern magnolia; tulip poplar, basswood, sugar maple, buckeye, and white oak; (c) sugar maple, beech, and yellow birch; (4) upland hardwood forests of scrub oaks; (5) mid- to late-successional mixed pine-hardwood forests of (a) loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, and oaks; (b) sand pine and scrub oaks; (c) longleaf pine and scrub oaks; and (d) longleaf pine and mixed hardwoods; (e) white pine, oaks, and hickories; (6) mid- to late-successional pine forests of (a) loblolly pine and shortleaf pine; (b) scrub pine and pitch pine; (c) white pine and eastern hemlock; and (d) longleaf pine. Restricted in southwestern part of range to riverine habitats. In Great Plain states, found in tree-shrub-savanna com-munities, but not in prairie grasslands and dry-belt pine forests. In Coastal Plain states, common in swamps. Throughout range, inhabits parks and well-wooded suburban and even urban areas.

Reference: Mostrom, Alison M., Robert L. Curry and Bernard Lohr. 2002. Carolina Chickadee (Poecile carolinensis), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/636. ... .doi:bna.636

Black-capped Chickadee - Deciduous and mixed deciduous/coniferous woodland, open woods and parks, willow thickets, and cottonwood groves. Also disturbed areas, such as old fields or suburban areas, where suitable nest sites are available with sufficient foliage to support adequate food for dependent offspring. Generally more common near edges of wooded areas, but can be found even in the middle of large wooded tracts. Often found in, though not confined to, areas where birch or alder trees occur; these provide both food and nest sites. Very little range overlap with other species of chickadees.

Reference: Smith, Susan M. 1993. Black-capped Chickadee (Poecile atricapilla), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/039. ... doi:bna.39

Mountain Chickadee - Mainly year-round resident of montane coniferous forests of w. North America, primarily in areas dominated by pine, spruce-fir, and piñon-juniper. Occurs in mixed coniferous-deciduous forests and riparian zones, where it uses conifers more than expected by chance.

Reference: Mccallum, D. Archibald, Ralph Grundel and Donald L. Dahlsten. 1999. Mountain Chickadee (Poecile gambeli), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/453 - doi:bna.453

Chestnut-backed Chickadee - Occurs within densest coniferous forests, or along edges, where temperature is even and there is considerable shade. Habitat coincides closely with narrow coastal belt of high rainfall and abundant cloudy weather from central California to British Columbia. Besides coastal coniferous forests, uses other habitats in California.

Reference: Dahlsten, Donald L., Leonard A. Brennan, D. Archibald Mccallum and Sandra L. Gaunt. 2002. Chestnut-backed Chickadee (Poecile rufescens), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/689. ... .doi:bna.689

Tufted Titmouse - Limited to mostly deciduous forests but can occupy mixed deciduous-coniferous forests; also swamps, orchards, parks, and suburban areas. Preferred habitats contain tall vegetation, large numbers of tree species, and dense canopy. Root (1988) reported that this species does not occupy areas > 2,000 ft (610 m) above sea level, although Black-crested Titmice have been observed in a deciduous oak-sweet-gum forest at 3,400 ft (1,037 m) in s. San Luis Potosi, and Oberholster (1974) cites the elevation range of P. b. dysleptus as 1,000–7,000 m. Present only in areas receiving > 24 inches (61 cm) of rain annually.

Reference: Grubb, Jr, T. C. and V. V. Pravasudov. 1994. Tufted Titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/086. ... doi:bna.86

White-breasted Nuthatch - Generally mature deciduous woodland, but also mixed deciduous and coniferous forest. Usually avoids boreal coniferous forest, where it is replaced by the Red-breasted Nuthatch, although occasional nests are found there. Favors woodland edges over more central locations, prefering open areas (water, roads, clearings, fields) near the nest.

Reference: Pravosudov, V. V. and T. C. Grubb, Jr. 1993. White-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta carolinensis), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/054. ... .doi:bna.54

Pygmy Nuthatch - Shows a strong and almost exclusive preference for long-needled pine forests. Range almost co-extensive with that of ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, and similar species. Since Pygmy Nuthatch nests in dead pines and live trees with dead sections, it prefers old-growth, mature, undisturbed forests.

Reference: Kingery, Hugh E. and Cameron K. Ghalambor. 2001. Pygmy Nuthatch (Sitta pygmaea), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/567. ... .doi:bna.567

Brown-headed Nuthatch - Occurs almost exclusively in association with pine (Pinus) trees, in wide variety of southeastern pine forest habitats. Southeastern pine forests consist of 11 species of pine, the most extensive of which are the loblolly-shortleaf pine association and the longleaf-slash pine association. These 2 principal forest types are among those with highest abundance of Brown-headed Nuthatch. Within these forest types, this species is most common in open, mature, old-growth pine forest, particularly where natural fire patterns have been maintained. Less frequently but regularly found in stands of young or medium-aged pine, in mixed pine-hardwood stands, and in mature pine stands with heavy undergrowth. Also may occur in residential areas, particularly parks and neighborhoods with large pines rising from open areas.

Reference: Withgott, James H. and Kimberly G. Smith. 1998. Brown-headed Nuthatch (Sitta pusilla), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/349. ... .doi:bna.349

Brown Creeper - Late successional stages of coniferous forests and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests. Especially common in unlogged, old-growth stands. In the Pacific Northwest, primarily mesic conifer forests with high canopy cover. More likely to use ponderosa pine in the Southwest and deciduous forests in the Northeast. The consistent factor appears to be the need for large trees and snags (dead trees) for foraging and nesting microsites.

Reference: Hejl, S. J., K. R. Newlon, M. E. Mcfadzen, J. S. Young and C. K. Ghalambor. 2002. Brown Creeper (Certhia americana), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/669. ... .doi:bna.669

Carolina Wren - Wide range of habitats, from brushy clearcuts and lowland cypress swamps to hemlock- and rhododendron- choked ravines . Habitat requirements include moderate to dense shrub or brushy cover.

Reference: Haggerty, Thomas M., and Eugene S. Morton. 1995. Carolina Wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/188 - doi:bna.188

Bewick's Wren - Brushy areas, scrub and thickets in open country, open and riparian woodland, and chaparral. Breeding territories usually contain mixtures of thick scrubby vegetation and open woodland, and nests are well concealed. Eastern populations are often around out buildings of farms near brushy or wooded areas in cleared or fairly open country; found on higher ground or in broad valleys but not in steep, narrow valleys. Western races generally in brushy areas away from humans, although in British Columbia this wren nests mostly in buildings such as sheds, garages and barns, as well as in living and dead trees. Presence of House Wrens appear detrimental to this species.

Reference: Kennedy, E. Dale, and Douglas W. White. 1997. Bewick's Wren (Thryomanes bewickii), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/315 - doi:bna.315

House Wren - In the East, known to occur primarily at or near edges of deciduous forests and in open woodlands—e.g., wooded swamps, recently burned pocosins, savannas, city parks, and residential areas with trees. In western plains, found exclusively in wooded areas around water, or in farmyards or residential areas with trees and shrubs. In western foothills and mountains, found in deciduous or mixed deciduous-coniferous woodlands in canyons and riparian areas, in open ponderosa pine and Douglas fir parklands, in piñon-juniper, oak, and walnut woodlands, up to ≥3,000 m in aspen groves, and at edges or in clear-cut or thinned areas of denser montane coniferous forests.

Reference: Johnson, L. Scott. 1998. House Wren (Troglodytes aedon), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/380 - doi:bna.380

Eastern Bluebird - Prefers open habitat with no or little understory and with sparse ground cover, such as lowland pine savanna of Nicaragua. Modern breeding habitats, documented extensively in e. North America, include orchards, clear-cuts in oak-hickory forests, burned tracts of jack pine plains and longleaf pine–slash pine woods, upland, and swampy habitats quite near to major urban areas. Use of most open-canopy areas, including low grass verges of railroad tracts in rural towns, is increased by addition of nesting boxes.

Reference: Gowaty, Patricia Adair, and Jonathan H. Plissner. 1998. Eastern Bluebird (Sialia sialis), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/381. ... .doi:bna.381

Western Bluebird - Open coniferous and deciduous woodlands; wooded riparian areas; grasslands; farmlands; and burned, moderately logged, and edge areas with scattered trees, snags, or other suitable nest and perch sites. Throughout much of range, found largely in Transition Zone at elevations as high as 2,700 m in New Mexico to 2,900 m in s.-central Colorado. Preference for open overstory; abundant in moderately disturbed areas, including moderately logged forests, and burned areas, where sufficient nest sites and foraging perches available.

Reference: Guinan, Judith A., Patricia A. Gowaty, and Elsie K. Eltzroth. 2000. Western Bluebird (Sialia mexicana), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/510 - doi:bna.510

Mountain Bluebird - Prairie-forest ecotones with groves of trees, short grasses, and few shrubs; savannas; recently burned areas; clear cuts; edges of alpine tundra; sagebrush flats and valleys at elevations up to 3,800 m above sea level. Found in Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian Life Zones. Breeds in nest boxes that face away from roads along roadsides, on ranches and farms with pastures.

Reference: Power, Harry W., and Michael P. Lombardo. 1996. Mountain Bluebird (Sialia currucoides), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/222 - doi:bna.222

American Robin - Frequents forest, woodland, and gardens, breeding primarily where lawns and other short-grass areas are interspersed with shrubs and trees, such as residential areas, towns, farmyards, and parks. In the nw. U.S. and sw. Canada, studies have shown robins to breed not only in residential areas but also in riparian areas and in early-successional forest after cutting or fire. In Douglas fir-western hemlock forests of sw. Washington, prefers partially logged stands (commercial thins) over clear-cuts and old growth. In managed grand fir forests of ne. Oregon, prefers early- and late-seral forest over mid-seral structural classes. In mixed-conifer forests of w.-central Idaho, breeds from low-elevation (600 m) dry ponderosa pine habitat types to high-elevation (2,300 m) subalpine fir types, but primarily in younger growth stages than old growth. In the se. U.S., robins occur near human settlements but also in spruce-fir forests in the highest parts of the Appalachian Mtns. where openings or grassy areas are nearby.

Reference: Sallabanks, Rex and Frances C. James. 1999. American Robin (Turdus migratorius), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/462 - doi:bna.462

Prothonotary Warbler - Key (and nearly universal) features are presence of water near wooded area with suitable cavity nest sites. Nest usually placed over or near large bodies of standing or slow-moving water, including seasonally flooded bottomland hardwood forest, bald cypress swamps, and large rivers or lakes. Many other forms of water also chosen, such as creeks, streams, backyard ponds, and even swimming pools. Water depth under nests highly variable. Other important habitat correlates include low elevation, flat terrain, shaded forest habitats with sparse understory, and in some places, presence of bald cypress. Exhibits area sensitivity, avoiding forests <100 ha in area and avoiding waterways with wooded borders <30 m wide.

Reference: Petit, Lisa J. 1999. Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/408 - doi:bna.408

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